English
Purpose of study
English has a pre-eminent place in education and in society. A high-quality education in English will teach pupils to speak and write fluently so that they can communicate their ideas and emotions to others and through their reading and listening, others can communicate with them. Through reading in particular, pupils have a chance to develop culturally, emotionally, intellectually, socially and spiritually. Literature, especially, plays a key role in such development. Reading also enables pupils both to acquire knowledge and to build on what they already know. All the skills of language are essential to participating fully as a member of society; pupils, therefore, who do not learn to speak, read and write fluently and confidently are effectively disenfranchised.
Aims
The overarching aim for English in the national curriculum is to promote high standards of language and literacy by equipping pupils with a strong command of the spoken and written word, and to develop their love of literature through widespread reading for enjoyment. The national curriculum for English aims to ensure that all pupils:
- read easily, fluently and with good understanding
- develop the habit of reading widely and often, for both pleasure and information
- acquire a wide vocabulary, an understanding of grammar and knowledge of linguistic conventions for reading, writing and spoken language
- appreciate our rich and varied literary heritage
- write clearly, accurately and coherently, adapting their language and style in and for a range of contexts, purposes and audiences
- use discussion in order to learn; they should be able to elaborate and explain clearly their understanding and ideas
- are competent in the arts of speaking and listening, making formal presentations, demonstrating to others and participating in debate.
Spoken language
The national curriculum for English reflects the importance of spoken language in pupils’ development across the whole curriculum – cognitively, socially and linguistically. Spoken language underpins the development of reading and writing. The quality and variety of language that pupils hear and speak are vital for developing their vocabulary and grammar and their understanding for reading and writing. Teachers should therefore ensure the continual development of pupils’ confidence and competence in spoken language and listening skills. Pupils should develop a capacity to explain their understanding of books and other reading, and to prepare their ideas before they write. They must be assisted in making their thinking clear to themselves as well as to others and teachers should ensure that pupils build secure foundations by using discussion to probe and remedy their misconceptions. Pupils should also be taught to understand and use the conventions for discussion and debate.
All pupils should be enabled to participate in and gain knowledge, skills and understanding associated with the artistic practice of drama. Pupils should be able to adopt, create and sustain a range of roles, responding appropriately to others in role. They should have opportunities to improvise, devise and script drama for one another and a range of audiences, as well as to rehearse, refine, share and respond thoughtfully to drama and theatre performances.
Statutory requirements which underpin all aspects of spoken language across the six years of primary education form part of the national curriculum. These are reflected and contextualised within the reading and writing domains which follow.
Reading
The programmes of study for reading at Key stages 1 and 2 consist of two dimensions:
- word reading
- comprehension (both listening and reading).
It is essential that teaching focuses on developing pupils’ competence in both dimensions; different kinds of teaching are needed for each.
Skilled word reading involves both the speedy working out of the pronunciation of unfamiliar printed words (decoding) and the speedy recognition of familiar printed words. Underpinning both is the understanding that the letters on the page represent the sounds in spoken words. This is why phonics should be emphasised in the early teaching of reading to beginners (i.e. unskilled readers) when they start school.
Good comprehension draws from linguistic knowledge (in particular of vocabulary and grammar) and on knowledge of the world. Comprehension skills develop through pupils’ experience of high-quality discussion with the teacher, as well as from reading and discussing a range of stories, poems and non-fiction. All pupils must be encouraged to read widely across both fiction and non-fiction to develop their knowledge of themselves and the world in which they live, to establish an appreciation and love of reading, and to gain knowledge across the curriculum. Reading widely and often increases pupils’ vocabulary because they encounter words they would rarely hear or use in everyday speech. Reading also feeds pupils’ imagination and opens up a treasure-house of wonder and joy for curious young minds.
It is essential that, by the end of their primary education, all pupils are able to read fluently, and with confidence, in any subject in their forthcoming secondary education.
Writing
The programmes of study for writing at Key stages 1 and 2 are constructed similarly to those for reading:
- transcription (spelling and handwriting)
- composition (articulating ideas and structuring them in speech and writing).
It is essential that teaching develops pupils’ competence in these two dimensions. In addition, pupils should be taught how to plan, revise and evaluate their writing. These aspects of writing have been incorporated into the programmes of study for composition.
Writing down ideas fluently depends on effective transcription: that is, on spelling quickly and accurately through knowing the relationship between sounds and letters (phonics) and understanding the morphology (word structure) and orthography (spelling structure) of words. Effective composition involves forming, articulating and communicating ideas, and then organising them coherently for a reader. This requires clarity, awareness of the audience, purpose and context, and an increasingly wide knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. Writing also depends on fluent, legible and, eventually, speedy handwriting.
Spelling, vocabulary, grammar, punctuation and glossary
The two statutory appendices – on spelling and on vocabulary, grammar and punctuation – give an overview of the specific features that should be included in teaching the programmes of study.
Opportunities for teachers to enhance pupils’ vocabulary arise naturally from their reading and writing. As vocabulary increases, teachers should show pupils how to understand the relationships between words, how to understand nuances in meaning, and how to develop their understanding of, and ability to use, figurative language. They should also teach pupils how to work out and clarify the meanings of unknown words and words with more than one meaning. References to developing pupils’ vocabulary are also included within the appendices.
Pupils should be taught to control their speaking and writing consciously and to use Standard English. They should be taught to use the elements of spelling, grammar, punctuation and ‘language about language’ listed. This is not intended to constrain or restrict teachers’ creativity, but simply to provide the structure on which they can construct exciting lessons. A non-statutory Glossary is provided for teachers.
Throughout the programmes of study, teachers should teach pupils the vocabulary they need to discuss their reading, writing and spoken language. It is important that pupils learn the correct grammatical terms in English and that these terms are integrated within teaching.
School curriculum
The programmes of study for English are set out year-by-year for Key stage 1 and two- yearly for Key stage 2. The single year blocks at key stage 1 reflect the rapid pace of development in word reading during these two years. Schools are, however, only required to teach the relevant programme of study by the end of the key stage. Within each Key stage, schools therefore have the flexibility to introduce content earlier or later than set out in the programme of study. In addition, schools can introduce Key stage content during an earlier Key stage if appropriate. All schools are also required to set out their school curriculum for English on a year-by-year basis and make this information available online.
Attainment targets
By the end of each Key stage, pupils are expected to know, apply and understand the matters, skills and processes specified in the relevant programme of study.
Grade 1 programme of study 
Reading – word reading+
Statutory requirements
Pupils should be taught to:
- Apply phonic knowledge and skills as the route to decode words
- Respond speedily with the correct sound to graphemes (letters or groups of letters) for all 40+ phonemes, including, where applicable, alternative sounds for graphemes
- Read accurately by blending sounds in unfamiliar words containing GPCs that have been taught
- Read common exception words, noting unusual correspondences between spelling and sound and where these occur in the word
- Read words containing taught GPCs and –s, –es, –ing, –ed, –er and –est endings
- Read other words of more than one syllable that contain taught GPCs
- Read words with contractions [for example, I’m, I’ll, we’ll], and understand that the apostrophe represents the omitted letter(s)
- Read aloud accurately books that are consistent with their developing phonic knowledge and that do not require them to use other strategies to work out words
- Re-read these books to build up their fluency and confidence in word reading.
Reading – comprehension+
Statutory requirements
Pupils should be taught to:
- Develop pleasure in reading, motivation to read, vocabulary and understanding by :
- listening to and discussing a wide range of poems, stories and non-fiction at a level beyond that at which they can read independently
- being encouraged to link what they read or hear read to their own experiences
- becoming very familiar with key stories, fairy stories and traditional tales, retelling them and considering their particular characteristics
- recognising and joining in with predictable phrases learning to appreciate rhymes and poems, and to recite some by heart discussing word meanings,
- linking new meanings to those already know
- discussing word meanings, linking new meanings to those already known
- Understand both the books they can already read accurately and fluently and those they listen to by:
- drawing on what they already know or on background information and vocabulary provided by the teacher
- checking that the text makes sense to them as they read and correcting inaccurate reading
- discussing the significance of the title and events
- making inferences on the basis of what is being said and done
- predicting what might happen on the basis of what has been read so far
- Participate in discussion about what is read to them, taking turns and listening to what others say
- recognising and joining in with predictable phrases learning to appreciate rhymes and poems, and to recite some by heart discussing word meanings,
- recognising and joining in with predictable phrases learning to appreciate rhymes and poems, and to recite some by heart discussing word meanings,
- recognising and joining in with predictable phrases learning to appreciate rhymes and poems, and to recite some by heart discussing word meanings,
- recognising and joining in with predictable phrases learning to appreciate rhymes and poems, and to recite some by heart discussing word meanings, recognising and joining in with predictable phrases learning to appreciate rhymes and poems, and to recite some by heart discussing word meanings,
- recognising and joining in with predictable phrases learning to appreciate rhymes and poems, and to recite some by heart discussing word meanings,
- Explain clearly their understanding of what is read to them
Writing – transcription+
Statutory requirements
Spelling (see English Appendix 1)Pupils should be taught to:
- Spell
- words containing each of the 40+ phonemes already taught
- common exception words
- the days of the week
- Name the letters of the alphabet
- naming the letters of the alphabet in order
- using letter names to distinguish between alternative spellings of the same sound
- Add prefixes and suffixes:
- using the spelling rule for adding –s or –es as the plural marker for nouns and the third person singular marker for verbs
- using the prefix un–
- using –ing, –ed, –er and –est where no change is needed in the spelling of root words [for example, helping, helped, helper, eating, quicker, quickest]
- Apply simple spelling rules and guidance, as listed in English Appendix 1
- write from memory simple sentences dictated by the teacher that include words using the GPCs and common exception words taught so far.
Handwriting
Pupils should be taught to:
- Sit correctly at a table, holding a pencil comfortably and correctly
- Begin to form lower-case letters in the correct direction, starting and finishing in the right place
- Form capital letters
- Form digits 0-9
- understand which letters belong to which handwriting ‘families’ (i.e. letters that are formed in similar ways) and to practise these.
- Write sentences by:
- saying out loud what they are going to write about
- composing a sentence orally before writing it
- sequencing sentences to form short narratives
- re-reading what they have written to check that it makes sense
- Discuss what they have written with the teacher or other pupils
- Read aloud their writing clearly enough to be heard by their peers and the teacher.
- Develop their understanding of the concepts set out in English Appendix 2 by:
- leaving spaces between words
- joining words and joining clauses using and
- beginning to punctuate sentences using a capital letter and a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark
- using a capital letter for names of people, places, the days of the week, and the personal pronoun ‘I’
- learning the grammar for grade 1 in English Appendix 2
- Use the grammatical terminology in English Appendix 2 in discussing their writing.
Grade 2 programme of study
Reading - word reading+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Continue to apply phonic knowledge and skills as the route to decode words until automatic decoding has become embedded and reading is fluent
- Read accurately by blending the sounds in words that contain the graphemes taught so far, especially recognising alternative sounds for graphemes
- Read accurately words of two or more syllables that contain the same graphemes as above
- Read words containing common suffixes
- Read further common exception words, noting unusual correspondences between spelling and sound and where these occur in the word
- Read most words quickly and accurately, without overt sounding and blending, when they have been frequently encountered
- Read aloud books closely matched to their improving phonic knowledge, sounding out unfamiliar words accurately, automatically and without undue hesitation
- Re-read these books to build up their fluency and confidence in word reading.
Reading - comprehension+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Develop pleasure in reading, motivation to read, vocabulary and understanding by:
- listening to, discussing and expressing views about a wide range of contemporary and classic poetry, stories and non-fiction at a level beyond that at which they can read independently
- discussing the sequence of events in books and how items of information are related
- becoming increasingly familiar with and retelling a wider range of stories, fairy stories and traditional tales
- being introduced to non-fiction books that are structured in different ways
- recognising simple recurring literary language in stories and poetry
- discussing and clarifying the meanings of words, linking new meanings to known vocabulary
- discussing their favourite words and phrases
- continuing to build up a repertoire of poems learnt by heart, appreciating these and reciting some, with appropriate intonation to make the meaning clear
- Understand both the books that they can already read accurately and fluently and those that they listen to by:
- drawing on what they already know or on background information and vocabulary provided by the teacher
- checking that the text makes sense to them as they read and correcting inaccurate reading
- making inferences on the basis of what is being said and done
- answering and asking questions
- predicting what might happen on the basis of what has been read so far
- Participate in discussion about books, poems and other works that are read to them and those that they can read for themselves, taking turns and listening to what others say
- Explain and discuss their understanding of books, poems and other material, both those that they listen to and those that they read for themselves.
Writing - transcription+
Spelling (see English Appendix 1)
Pupils should be taught to:
- Spell by:
- segmenting spoken words into phonemes and representing these by graphemes, spelling many correctly
- learning new ways of spelling phonemes for which one or more spellings are already known, and learn some words with each spelling, including a few common homophones
- learning to spell common exception words
- learning to spell more words with contracted forms
- learning the possessive apostrophe (singular) [for example, the girl’s book]
- distinguishing between homophones and near-homophones
- Add suffixes to spell longer words, including –ment, –ness, –ful, –less, –ly
- Apply spelling rules and guidance, as listed in English Appendix 1
- Write from memory simple sentences dictated by the teacher that include words using the GPCs, common exception words and punctuation taught so far.
Handwriting
Pupils should be taught to:
- Form lower-case letters of the correct size relative to one another
- Start using some of the diagonal and horizontal strokes needed to join letters and understand which letters, when adjacent to one another, are best left unjoined
- Write capital letters and digits of the correct size, orientation and relationship to one another and to lower case letters use spacing between words that reflects the size of the letters use spacing between words that reflects the size of the letters use spacing between words that reflects the size of the letters use spacing between words that reflects the size of the letters.
Writing - composition+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Develop positive attitudes towards and stamina for writing by:
- writing narratives about personal experiences and those of others (real and fictional)
- writing about real events
- writing poetry
- writing for different purposes
- Consider what they are going to write before beginning by:
- planning or saying out loud what they are going to write about
- writing down ideas and/or key words, including new vocabulary
- encapsulating what they want to say, sentence by sentence
- Make simple additions, revisions and corrections to their own writing by:
- evaluating their writing with the teacher and other pupils
- re-reading to check that their writing makes sense and that verbs to indicate time are used correctly and consistently, including verbs in the continuous form
- proof-reading to check for errors in spelling, grammar and punctuation [for example, ends of sentences punctuated correctly]
- Read aloud what they have written with appropriate intonation to make the meaning clear.
Writing - vocabulary, grammar and punctuation+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Develop their understanding of the concepts set out in English Appendix 2 by:
- learning how to use both familiar and new punctuation correctly (see English Appendix 2), including full stops, capital letters, exclamation marks, question marks, commas for lists and apostrophes for contracted forms and the possessive (singular)
- Learn how to use:
- sentences with different forms: statement, question, exclamation, command
- expanded noun phrases to describe and specify [for example, the blue butterfly]
- the present and past tenses correctly and consistently including the progressive form
- subordination (using when, if, that, or because) and co-ordination (using or, and, or but)
- the grammar for grade 2 in English Appendix 2
- some features of written Standard English
- Use and understand the grammatical terminology in English Appendix 2 in discussing their writing.
English Appendix 1: Spelling
Spelling – work for grade 2+
Revision of work from grade 1
As words with new GPCs are introduced, many previously-taught GPCs can be revised at the same time as these words will usually contain them.
New work for grade 2
| Statutory requirements | Rules and guidance (non-statutory) | Example words (non-statutory) |
|---|---|---|
| The /dʒ/ sound spelt as ge and dge at the end of words, and sometimes spelt as g elsewhere in words before e, i and y | The letter j is never used for the /dʒ/ sound at the end of English words. At the end of a word, the /dʒ/ sound is spelt –dge straight after the /æ/, /ɛ/, /ɪ/, /ɒ/, /ʌ/ and /ʊ/ sounds (sometimes called ‘short’ vowels). After all other sounds, whether vowels or consonants, the /dʒ/ sound is spelt as –ge at the end of a word. In other positions in words, the /dʒ/ sound is often (but not always) spelt as g before e, i, and y. The /dʒ/ sound is always spelt as j before a, o and u. | badge, edge, bridge, dodge, fudge age, huge, change, charge, bulge, village gem, giant, magic, giraffe, energy jacket, jar, jog, join, adjust |
| The /s/ sound spelt c before e, i and y | race, ice, cell, city, fancy |
Grades 3 and 4 programme of study
Reading - word reading+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Apply their growing knowledge of root words, prefixes and suffixes (etymology and morphology) as listed in English Appendix 1, both to read aloud and to understand the meaning of new words they meet
- Read further exception words, noting the unusual correspondences between spelling and sound, and where these occur in the word.
Reading - comprehension+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Develop positive attitudes to reading and understanding of what they read by:
- Listening to and discussing a wide range of fiction, poetry, plays, non-fiction and reference books or textbooks
- Reading books that are structured in different ways and reading for a range of purposes
- Using dictionaries to check the meaning of words that they have read
- Increasing their familiarity with a wide range of books, including fairy stories, myths and legends, and retelling some of these orally
- Identifying themes and conventions in a wide range of books
- Preparing poems and play scripts to read aloud and to perform, showing understanding through intonation, tone, volume and action
- Discussing words and phrases that capture the reader’s interest and imagination
- Recognising some different forms of poetry [for example, free verse, narrative poetry]
- Understand what they read, in books they can read independently, by:
- checking that the text makes sense to them, discussing their understanding and explaining the meaning of words in context
- asking questions to improve their understanding of a text
- drawing inferences such as inferring characters’ feelings, thoughts and motives from their actions, and justifying inferences with evidence
- predicting what might happen from details stated and implied
- identifying main ideas drawn from more than one paragraph and summarising these
- identifying how language, structure, and presentation contribute to meaning
- retrieve and record information from non-fiction
- participate in discussion about both books that are read to them and those they can read for themselves, taking turns and listening to what others say.
Writing - transcription+
Spelling (see English Appendix 1)
Pupils should be taught to:
- Use further prefixes and suffixes and understand how to add them (English Appendix 1)
- Spell further homophones
- Spell words that are often misspelt (English Appendix 1)
- Place the possessive apostrophe accurately in words with regular plurals [for example, girls’, boys’] and in words with irregular plurals [for example, children’s]
- Use the first two or three letters of a word to check its spelling in a dictionary
- Write from memory simple sentences, dictated by the teacher, that include words and punctuation taught so far.
Handwriting
Pupils should be taught to:
- use the diagonal and horizontal strokes that are needed to join letters and understand which letters, when adjacent to one another, are best left unjoined increase the legibility, consistency and quality of their handwriting [for example, by ensuring that the downstrokes of letters are parallel and equidistant; that lines of writing are spaced sufficiently so that the ascenders and descenders of letters do not touch].
Writing - composition+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Plan their writing by:
- discussing writing similar to that which they are planning to write in order to understand and learn from its structure, vocabulary and grammar
- discussing and recording ideas
- Draft and write by:
- composing and rehearsing sentences orally (including dialogue), progressively building a varied and rich vocabulary and an increasing range of sentence structures (English Appendix 2)
- organising paragraphs around a theme
- in narratives, creating settings, characters and plot
- in non-narrative material, using simple organisational devices [for example, headings and sub-headings]
- Evaluate and edit by:
- assessing the effectiveness of their own and others’ writing and suggesting improvements
- proposing changes to grammar and vocabulary to improve consistency, including the accurate use of pronouns in sentences
- Proof-read for spelling and punctuation errors
- Read aloud their own writing, to a group or the whole class, using appropriate intonation and controlling the tone and volume so that the meaning is clear.
Writing - vocabulary, grammar and punctuation+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Develop their understanding of the concepts set out in English Appendix 2 by:
- extending the range of sentences with more than one clause by using a wider range of conjunctions, including when, if, because, although
- using the present perfect form of verbs in contrast to the past tense
- choosing nouns or pronouns appropriately for clarity and cohesion and to avoid repetition
- using conjunctions, adverbs and prepositions to express time and cause
- using fronted adverbials
- learning the grammar for grades 3 and 4 in English Appendix 2
- Indicate grammatical and other features by:
- using commas after fronted adverbials
- indicating possession by using the possessive apostrophe with plural nouns
- using and punctuating direct speech
- Use and understand the grammatical terminology in English Appendix 2 accurately and appropriately when discussing their writing and reading.
English Appendix 1: Spelling
Spelling – work for grade 1+
As words with new GPCs are introduced, many previously-taught GPCs can be revised at the same time as these words will usually contain them.
New work for grade 2
| The /dʒ/ sound spelt as ge and dge at the end of words, and sometimes spelt as g elsewhere in words before e, i and y | The /dʒ/ sound spelt as ge and dge at the end of words, and sometimes spelt as g elsewhere in words before e, i and y |
Grades 5 and 6 programme of study
Reading - word reading+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Apply their growing knowledge of root words, prefixes and suffixes (morphology and etymology), as listed in English Appendix 1, both to read aloud and to understand the meaning of new words that they meet.
Reading - comprehension+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Maintain positive attitudes to reading and understanding of what they read by:
- continuing to read and discuss an increasingly wide range of fiction, poetry, plays, non-fiction and reference books or textbooks
- reading books that are structured in different ways and reading for a range of purposes
- increasing their familiarity with a wide range of books, including myths, legends and traditional stories, modern fiction, fiction from our literary heritage, and books from other cultures and traditions
- recommending books that they have read to their peers, giving reasons for their choices
- identifying and discussing themes and conventions in and across a wide range of writing
- making comparisons within and across books
- learning a wider range of poetry by heart
- preparing poems and plays to read aloud and to perform, showing understanding through intonation, tone and volume so that the meaning is clear to an audience
- Understand what they read by:
- checking that the book makes sense to them, discussing their understanding and exploring the meaning of words in context
- asking questions to improve their understanding
- drawing inferences such as inferring characters’ feelings, thoughts and motives from their actions, and justifying inferences with evidence
- predicting what might happen from details stated and implied
- summarising the main ideas drawn from more than one paragraph, identifying key details that support the main ideas
- identifying how language, structure and presentation contribute to meaning
- discuss and evaluate how authors use language, including figurative language, considering the impact on the reader
- distinguish between statements of fact and opinion
- retrieve, record and present information from non-fiction
- participate in discussions about books that are read to them and those they can read for themselves, building on their own and others’ ideas and challenging views courteously
- explain and discuss their understanding of what they have read, including through formal presentations and debates, maintaining a focus on the topic and using notes where necessary
- provide reasoned justifications for their views.
Writing - transcription+
- Use further prefixes and suffixes and understand the guidance for adding them
- Spell some words with ‘silent’ letters [for example, knight, psalm, solemn]
- Continue to distinguish between homophones and other words which are often confused
- Use knowledge of morphology and etymology in spelling and understand that the spelling of some words needs to be learnt specifically, as listed in English Appendix 1
- Use dictionaries to check the spelling and meaning of words
- Use the first three or four letters of a word to check spelling, meaning or both of these in a dictionary
- Use a thesaurus.
Handwriting and presentation
Pupils should be taught to:
- Write legibly, fluently and with increasing speed by:
- Choosing which shape of a letter to use when given choices and deciding whether or not to join specific letters
- Choosing the writing implement that is best suited for a task.
Writing - composition+
Pupils should be taught to:
- Plan their writing by:
- identifying the audience for and purpose of the writing, selecting the appropriate form and using other similar writing as models for their own
- noting and developing initial ideas, drawing on reading and research where necessary
- in writing narratives, considering how authors have developed characters and settings in what pupils have read, listened to or seen performed
- Draft and write by:
- selecting appropriate grammar and vocabulary, understanding how such choices can change and enhance meaning
- in narratives, describing settings, characters and atmosphere and integrating dialogue to convey character and advance the action
- précising longer passages
- using a wide range of devices to build cohesion within and across paragraphs
- using further organisational and presentational devices to structure text and to guide the reader [for example, headings, bullet points, underlining]
- Evaluate and edit by:
- assessing the effectiveness of their own and others’ writing
- proposing changes to vocabulary, grammar and punctuation to enhance effects and clarify meaning
- ensuring the consistent and correct use of tense throughout a piece of writing
- ensuring correct subject and verb agreement when using singular and plural, distinguishing between the language of speech and writing and choosing the appropriate register
- Proof-read for spelling and punctuation errors
- Perform their own compositions, using appropriate intonation, volume, and movement so that meaning is clear.
- develop their understanding of the concepts set out in English Appendix 2 by:
- recognising vocabulary and structures that are appropriate for formal speech and writing, including subjunctive forms
- using passive verbs to affect the presentation of information in a sentence
- using the perfect form of verbs to mark relationships of time and cause
- using expanded noun phrases to convey complicated information concisely
- using modal verbs or adverbs to indicate degrees of possibility
- using relative clauses beginning with who, which, where, when, whose, that or with an implied (i.e. omitted) relative pronoun
- learning the grammar for grades 5 and 6 in English Appendix 2
- Indicate grammatical and other features by:
- using commas to clarify meaning or avoid ambiguity in writing
- using hyphens to avoid ambiguity
- using brackets, dashes or commas to indicate parenthesis
- using semi-colons, colons or dashes to mark boundaries between independent clauses
- using a colon to introduce a list
- punctuating bullet points consistently
- Use and understand the grammatical terminology in English Appendix 2 accurately and appropriately in discussing their writing and reading.